How certain are we that Jesus died on the cross? Could His resurrection have been a hoax? These are critical issues to the Christian faith. The apostle Paul admonished the Corinthian church, “And if Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile and you are still in your sins” (1 Corinthians 15:17, ESV). This is a 21st century medical examination of the crucifixion of Jesus.

 

“The three most brutal forms of execution known to antiquity were judged to be crux (crucifixion), crematio (burning) and decollatio (decapitation), in that order.”[1] Of these, none are in practice in the United States today. The cross of Roman crucifixion “was characterized by an upright post (stipes) and a horizontal crossbar (patibulum).”[2] “The weight of the entire cross was probably well over 300 lb (136 kg).”[3] “To prolong the crucifixion process, a horizontal wooden block or plank, serving as a crude seat (sedile or sedulum), often was attached midway down the stipes. Only very rarely, and probably later than the time of Christ, was an additional block (suppedaneum) employed for transfixion of the feet.”[4] The iron nails used in crucifixion were typically 3/8 of an inch in size at the head leading down five to seven inches to the point of the nail. The placement of the nails into the forearms and feet was such that they would not break bones or pierce blood vessels, both of which may hasten death. The placement of the nails into the feet of the victim were either placed through the large bone of the heel (calcaneus) or between the second and third metatarsals, both sites which could support the weight of the victim while exacting excruciating pain.

 

Roman Crucifixion

Roman crucifixion typically was preceded by taunting the person to be crucified along with exceptionally cruel scourging. Once or twice per year, an entire legion of Roman soldiers was invited to make a sport of the process of scourging, humiliating the victim as a specter in front of hundreds of men.

 

The starting point of Roman scourging began with the use of a flagrum (a short whip with sharp pieces of sheep bone and lead balls woven into the thongs) and the victim whipped across the back, buttocks and legs. The wounds that ensued were equivalent to third- and fourth-degree burns.[5] A fourth-degree burn is one in which the layers of skin and underlying tissue have been torn away exposing bones, muscles and internal organs. The scourging process exposed ribs, lungs, spine, liver, kidneys, psoas and gluteal muscles and intestines. It was common for the victim of scourging to die as a direct result of the scourging.[6] Following this torment, if still alive, the victim to be crucified was typically required to carry the patibulum to the site of crucifixion.

 

If death was deemed to be accelerated, the soldiers would break the long bones of the legs, as this would cause acute massive internal hemorrhaging and fat emboli. Hemorrhagic shock and pulmonary emboli would result, leading to a hastened death.

 

The Roman soldiers, and particularly the main executioner, were experts at recognizing death. Roman guards could only leave the crucifixion site after death had been verified.[7] To confirm that death, the Roman executioners could take a spear, thrusting it upward on the left side of the victim through the diaphragm, pericardium and heart. The clear fluid of the pericardial effusion appeared as water, followed by the piercing of the heart, resulting in the appearance of blood.

 

Creeping from the Tomb: The Apparent Death Theory

There are still infrequent opinions that Jesus did not die from the scourging and subsequent crucifixion. These opinions, however, are purely based on wild speculation, as there are no historical documents to support these conjectures. To theories like these Professor Gary Habermas responds, “In other words, after having been beaten, flogged, and nailed to a cross, if Jesus were to have been able to make his way out of the tomb, while also bleeding, swelling and limping, the disciples would not have called Jesus victorious over death, but rather would have called a doctor.”[8]

 

There is near-unanimous agreement that first-century survivability of crucifixion was impossible.[9] Even in the one isolated case where the crucifixion of three individuals was halted in the process of crucifixion and all three given first-century medical care, only one of the three survived. It is important to remember that there were no 21 century trauma centers or intensive care units near Golgotha around AD 33. That means there was no intravenous access, no central lines, no cardiac monitors, no vasopressor or inotropic drugs, no supplemental oxygen, no anesthesiologists, no trauma surgeons, nor were ultrasound, x-ray, CT or MRI imaging available anywhere. Yet, even if Jesus’ scourging, torture and crucifixion—culminating in a spear piercing through His diaphragm, pericardium and heart—had occurred in the 21st century, it is medically impossible that Jesus had just swooned and then would be fully recovered a few days later to eat, walk and talk with His disciples and hundreds of others. With this information we have today about crucifixion and about medical science, it is time to put the “apparent death theory” to death and nail its coffin closed.

 

Not if, but Rather How, Did Jesus Die?

Despite scholarly research, by physicians, historians, theologians and philosophers, there still exists “insufficient evidence to safely state exactly how people did die from crucifixion in Roman times.”[10] A number of medical journal articles over several centuries have been published on this topic. Physicians notoriously have a penchant for disagreement. Whether Jesus died from multisystem organ failure, acute hemorrhagic shock, hypotension, asphyxia, syncope, acidosis, cardiac arrythmias, suspension trauma, disseminated intravascular coagulation, psychologic factors or a combination of these, we simply lack enough information such that we can only speculate as to what led to the death of Jesus.[11]^,[12] To this point, however, it appears these scholarly researchers are missing the point. The ultimate physiologic function that failed and caused the demise of Jesus is not the issue. The point is that Jesus was dead. Period!

 

The Crucifixion of Jesus

Men condemned to death suffer tremendous anxiety in the days leading up to their execution, as was the case with Jesus. “Apparently knowing that the time of his death was near, (Jesus) suffered great mental anguish, and, as described by the physician Luke (Luke 22:44), his sweat became like blood.”[13] Hematohidrosis is a rare phenomenon where a highly stressed person can hemorrhage into the sweat glands causing the person to sweat blood.[14]^,[15]

 

Matthew and Mark record that when Jesus was led away to be crucified, an entire battalion, approximately 600 Roman soldiers (a tenth of a legion), were assembled (Mark 15:16, Matthew 27:27). Based on what is known about Roman crucifixion, the visual image of 600 Roman soldiers gathered to torture and scourge one man, Jesus, is horrifying. This type of massive gathering of Roman soldiers for a crucifixion only occurred about once a year, where the victim being crucified was viewed as sport. Collectively the Roman soldiers struck Him and mocked Him (Mark 15:19, Matthew 27:29). These soldiers would have been experts at inflicting pain while evading death. A crown of thorns was placed on Jesus’ head and His clothes removed and substituted for a purple cloak. Jesus was weakened so much by the scourging that He was unable to carry His own patibulum (Luke 23:36), so Simon of Cyrene was seized and required to carry the patibulum.

 

At Golgotha, Jesus was hung on the cross between two other condemned men. Because it was the Friday before Passover, it was ordered that the executioners break the legs of the three men to hasten death; however, when the Roman executioners examined Jesus, they found that Jesus was already dead. To confirm death, John records, “…one of the soldiers pierced his side with a spear, and at once there came out blood and water” (John 19:34, ESV). The piercing of Jesus’ side appears to have been done just to further verify that Jesus was dead, or perhaps just out of shear hatred for the man who was called the King of the Jews.

 

Scripture records that Joseph from the town of Arimathea, who was a good and righteous man and a disciple of Jesus, with the consent of Pilate, took Jesus down and wrapped Jesus’ body in a linen shroud and laid Jesus in a tomb (Matthew 27:57-61, Luke 23:50-52, John 19:38-42).

 

The historical information contained in the New Testament gospels is consistent with historical information about Roman crucifixion. The account of an entire battalion of Roman soldiers is testimony to the severity of the scourging that Jesus received. Not only was Jesus crucified, but He was crucified after having been scourged in such a way that He would suffer severely but not avoid the suffering of crucifixion. From a medical standpoint, one can hardly imagine a more horrific death. From a theological standpoint, the amount of torment and suffering would be consistent for a penalty being exacted on one who was taking on the sins, past, present and future, of the entire world.

 

Conclusion

Researching the awful details of Roman crucifixion through the lens of a physician makes one wonder how anyone could survive more than a few hours, let alone days, hanging on the crucifixion cross following Roman scourging. Furthermore, with the knowledge of a 21st century physician reading about first-century crucifixion, the common denominator of crucifixion is certain death.

 

It is essential that the Christian understand the certainty of the death and resurrection of Jesus. Understanding these facts are foundational to the Christian faith (1 Corinthians 12-16). Dead men stay dead. However, if Jesus, after being severely scourged and crucified and buried in a tomb, then appeared three days later, fully functional and in apparent excellent health, the only explanation is that this was achieved through a divinely inspired medical miracle. Of this fact we can be certain. “Love’s redeeming work is done.”[16]

 

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About the Author

Allan T. Sawyer, MD, MS, MATS, is an obstetrician/gynecologist who has a BS and MS from Stanford University in biological sciences, a MD from Oral Roberts University School of Medicine and a master of arts in theological studies from Liberty University. He is currently working toward a Doctor of Ministry from Liberty University’s Rawlings School of Divinity. He serves overseas with Samaritan’s Purse with World Medical Mission and is a member of their Disaster Assistance Response Team (DART). He is also a Billy Graham Evangelistic Association (BGEA) Rapid Response Team (RRT) Chaplain. Dr. Sawyer has been the Arizona Representative to CMDA.

 

[1] Francois Retief and Louise Cilliers, “The History and Pathology of Crucifixion,” South African Medical Journal (Suid-Afrkaanse Tydskrif vir Geneeskunde) 93, no. 12, (Feb. 2007): 938.

[2] Williams Edwards, Wesley Gabel, and Floyd Hosmer, “On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ,” Journal of the American Medical Association 255, no. 11 (March 21, 1986): 1459.

[3] Ibid.

[4] Ibid.

[5] Lloyd-Davies, Margaret and Trevor Lloyd-Davies, “Resurrection or Resuscitation?” Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of London 25, no. 2 (April 1991): 167.

[6] Retief, “The History and Pathology of Crucifixion,” 940.

[7] Ibid., 938.

[8] Gary Habermas and Jonathan Kopel and Benjamin Shaw, “Medical Views on the Death by Crucifixion of Jesus Christ,” Proceedings (Baylor University Medical Center) 34, no. 6 (2001): 749.

[9] Maslen, “Medical Theories on the Cause of Death in Crucifixion,” 185.

[10] Maslen, “Medical Theories on the Cause of Death in Crucifixion,” 188.

[11] Ibid., 185.

[12] McGovern, “Did Jesus Die by Suffocation?” 65.

[13] Williams Edwards, Wesley Gabel, and Floyd Hosmer, “On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ,” Journal of the American Medical Association 255, no. 11 (March 21, 1986): 1456.

[14] Hemangi Jerajani, Bhagyashri Jaju, Meghana. Phiske, and Nitin Lade,” Hematohidrosis – A Rare Clinical Phenomenon,” Indian Journal of Dermatology 54, no. 3 (July-September 2009): 290.

[15] Edwards, “On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ,” 1456.

[16] Charles Wesley, Christ the Lord has Risen Today, United Methodist Hymnal, 1989.